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Implication of False Belief experiments 2

You

Passage below.

A

A considerable amount of research since the

mid 1980s has been concerned with what has been termed children's theory of

mind. This involves children's ability to understand that people can have

different beliefs and representations of the world -a capacity that is shown

by four years of age. Furthermore, this ability appears to be absent in

children with autism. The ability to work out what another person is thinking

is clearly an important aspect of both cognitive and social development.

Furthermore, one important explanation for autism is that children suffering

from this condition do not have a theory of mind (TOM). Consequently, the

development of children's TOM has attracted considerable attention.

B

Wimmer and Perner devised a false belief

task' to address this question. They used some toys to act out the following

story. Maxi left some chocolate in a blue cupboard before he went out. When

he was away his mother moved the chocolate to a green cupboard. Children were

asked to predict where Maxi will look for his chocolate when he returns. Most

children under four years gave the incorrect answer, that Maxi will look in

the green cupboard. Those over four years tended to give the correct answer,

that Maxi will look in the blue cupboard. The incorrect answers indicated

that the younger children did not understand that Maxi's beliefs and

representations no longer matched the actual state of the world, and they

failed to appreciate that Maxi will act on the basis of his beliefs rather

than the way that the world is actually organised.

C

A simpler version of the Maxi task was

devised by Baron-Cohen to take account of criticisms that younger children

may have been affected by the complexity and too much information of the

story in the task described above. For example, the child is shown two dolls,

Sally and Anne, who have a basket and a box, respectively. Sally also has a

marble, which she places in her basket, and then leaves to take a walk. While

she is out of the room, Anne takes the marble from the basket, eventually

putting it in the box. Sally returns, and the child is then asked where Sally

will look for the marble. The child passes the task if she answers that Sally

will look in the basket, where she put the marble; the child fails the task

if she answers that Sally will look in the box, where the child knows the

marble is hidden, even though Sally cannot know, since she did not see it

hidden there. In order to pass the task, the child must be able to understand

that another's mental representation of the situation is different from their

own, and the child must be able to predict behavior based on that

understanding. The results of research using been

fairly consistent: most normally-developing children are unable to pass the

tasks until around age four.

D

Leslie argues that, before 18 months,

children treat the world in a literal way and rarely demonstrate pretence. He

also argues that it is necessary for the cognitive system to distinguish

between what is pretend and what is real. If children were not able to do

this, they would not be able to distinguish between imagination and reality.

Leslie suggested that this pretend play becomes possible because of the

presence of a de-coupler that copies primary representations to secondary

representations. For example, children, when pretending a banana is a

telephone, would make a secondary representation of a banana. They would

manipulate this representation and they would use their stored knowledge of

'telephone' to build on this pretence.

E

There is also evidence that social

processes play a part in the development of TOM. Meins and her colleagues

have found that what they term mindmindedness in maternal speech to six-month

old infants is related to both security of attachment and to TOM abilities.

Mindmindedness involves speech that discusses infants' feelings and explains

their behaviour in terms of mental states (e.g. ‘you're feeling hungry’).

F

Lewis investigated older children living in

extended families in Crete and Cyprus. They found that children who socially

interact with more adults, who have more friends, and who have more older

siblings tend to pass TOM tasks at a slightly earlier age than other

children. Furthermore, because young children are more likely to talk about

their thoughts and feelings with peers than with their mothers, peer

interaction may provide a special impetus to the development of a TOM. A

similar point has been made by Dunn, who argues that peer interaction is more

likely to contain pretend play and that it is likely to be more challenging

because other children, unlike adults, do not make large adaptations to the

communicative needs of other children.

G

In addition, there has been concern that

some aspects of the TOM approach underestimate children's understanding of

other people. After all, infants will point to objects apparently in an

effort to change a person's direction of gaze and interest; they can interact

quite effectively with other people; they will express their ideas in

opposition to the wishes of others; and they will show empathy for the

feelings of others. All this suggests that they have some level of

understanding that their own thoughts are different to those in another

person's mind. Evidence to support this position comes from a variety of

sources. When a card with a different picture on each side is shown to a

child and an adult sitting opposite her, then three year olds understand that

they see a different picture to that seen by the adult.

H

Schatz studied the spontaneous speech of

three-year-olds and found that these children used mental terms, and used

them in circumstances where there was a contrast between, for example, not

being sure where an object was located and finding it, or between pretending

and reality. Thus the social abilities of children indicate that they are

aware of the difference between mental states and external reality at ages

younger than four.

I

A different explanation has been put

forward by Harris. He proposed that children use 'simulation'. This involves

putting yourself in the other person's position/ and then frying to predict

what the other person would do. Thus success on false belief tasks can be explained

by children trying to imagine what they would do if they were a character in

the stories, rather than children being able to appreciate the beliefs of

other people. Such thinking about situations that do not exist involves what

is termed counterfactual reasoning.

Questions 27-33

Use the

information in the passage to match the people (listed A-G) with opinions or

deeds below. Write the appropriate letters A-G in boxes 27-34 on your answer

sheet.

A. Baron-Cohen

B. Meins

C. Wimmer and Perner

D. Lewis

E. Dunn

F. Schatz

G. Harris

27. Giving

an alternative explanation that children may not be understanding other's

belief.

28. found

that children under certain age can tell difference between reality and

mentality

29. designed

an experiment and drew conclusion that young children under age of 4 were

unable to comprehend the real state of the world

30. found

that children who gets along with adults often comparatively got through test

more easily

31. revised

an easier experiment rule out the possibility that children might be influenced

by sophisticated reasoning.

32. Related

social factor such as mother-child communication to capability act in TOM

33. explained

children are less likely tell something interactive to their mother than to

their friends

Questions

34-40

Summary

Complete the

following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No

More than Three words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write

your answers in boxes 34-40 on your

answer sheet.

In 1980s,

researches are designed to test the subject called 34 that if children have the ability to

represent the reality. First experiment was carried out on this subject on a

boy. And questions had been made on where the how ran find the location of the 35 But it' excessive 36 . So second modified experiment was

conducted involving two dolls, and most children passed the test at the age of 37 . Then Lewis and Dunn researched 38 children in a certain place, and found

children who have more interaction such as more conversation with 39 actually have better performance in the

test, and peer interaction is 40 because of consisting pretending elements.